The Importance Of Culture And Organizational Culture

The importance of culture in the organization The organization culture as a leadership concept has been identified as one of the many components that leaders can use to grow a dynamic organization. Leadership in organizations starts the culture formation process by imposing their assumptions and expectations on their followers. Once culture is established and accepted, they become a strong leadership tool to communicate the leader s beliefs and values to organizational members, and especially new comers. When leaders promote ethical culture, they become successful in maintaining organizational growth, the good services demanded by the society, the ability to address problems before they become disasters and consequently are competitive against rivals. The leader s success will depend to a large extent, on his knowledge and understanding of the organizational culture. The leader who understands his organizational culture and takes it seriously is capable of predicting the outcome of his decisions in preventing any anticipated con sequences. What then is organizational culture? The concept of organizational culture has been defined from many perspectives in the literature. There is no one single definition for organizational culture. The topic of organizational culture has been studied from many perspectives and disciplines, such as anthropology, sociology, organizational behavior, and organizational leadership to name a few. Deal defines organizational culture as values,Show MoreRelatedOrganizational Culture and Its Importance2639 Words   |  11 PagesThere is no single definition for organizational culture. The topic has been studied from a variety of perspectives ranging from disciplines such as anthropology and sociology, to the applied disciplines of organizational behaviour, management science, and organizational communication. Some of the definitions are listed below: A set of common understandings around which action is organized; finding expression in language whose nuances are peculiar to the group (Becker and Geer 1960). A set of understandingsRead MoreOrganizational Culture and Its Importance2624 Words   |  11 PagesThere is no single definition for organizational culture. The topic has been studied from a variety of perspectives ranging from disciplines such as anthropology and sociology, to the applied disciplines of organizational behaviour, management science, and organizational communication. Some of the definitions are listed below: A set of common understandings around which action is organized; finding expression in language whose nuances are peculiar to the group (Becker and Geer 1960). A set of understandingsRead MoreThe Importance Of Organizational Development And Culture1179 Words   |  5 PagesOrganizational development in healthcare was a very interesting course and I have learned so much in a short amount of time. It has enabled me to be a better worker, to analysis and view work situation from a different perspective. The most important information and action resolutions that I would like to write in this personal application paper are the importance of organizational development and culture, how to recognize and avoid stressors, motivate employees, teamwork, conflict resolution,Read MoreThe Importance of Managing Organizational Culture2202 Words   |  9 Pages This essay will argue that organizational culture can and, should be managed. Increased business competition, amalgamations, globalization, acquisitions, business alliances, and other developments have created the need for management of organizational culture. The context of management of organi zational culture is fundamental to much of the successive work on organizational efficiency. Introduction A central issue in management of organizational culture is how to overcome the Principle-AgentRead MoreImportance Of Organizational Culture At Maheen Waqas2294 Words   |  10 Pages†¢ Importance of organizational culture: By: Maheen Waqas So far we have discussed the meaning, characteristics, types, liabilities and sustaining the organizational culture with in the company’s structure. The most crucial part is the importance .i.e. why do we need to develop such cultures and how far it affects the company and industries in reality? We will discuss the importance of organizational culture by jotting down various points. We have come to know that variousRead MoreThe Importance Of Power Within Organizational Culture758 Words   |  4 PagesKnowing the functionality of power within organizational culture, it is then apparent that organizations can effectively improve through the disbursement of power, bringing innovation and creativity. Organizations need to be adaptable to external environmental change in to survive and become learning organizations. However, concentrated power cultures like traditional authoritarian bureaucracies respond too slowly to change. Though the competitive success of many organizations n ow depend on the rateRead MoreBest Buy - the Importance of Organizational Culture and Change1099 Words   |  5 Pages- The Importance of Organizational Culture and Change Organizational cultures that can be a liability to an organization include those that create barriers to change, create barriers to diversity or barriers to mergers and acquisitions. (Robbins, S. P. 2011) Organizational cultures are also good for change and revitalization of a company. This paper will provide background information on Best Buy and the ROWE (Results-Only Work Environment) Program. This paper will describe the culture of BestRead MoreThe Importance Of Organizational Culture And Quality Control Standards1087 Words   |  5 Pagesthe control standards outlined in the auditing textbook (Alvin et al., 2012). The following sections include my professional opinions and recommendations of the quality control procedures at Abernethy and Chapman. Leadership Responsibilities Organizational culture is an important determining factor in the way in which the quality control standards are adhered to. According to the information provided, yourself and the other partners at Abernethy and Chapman, believe in continued emphasis on high qualityRead MoreThe Importance Of Striking A Balance Between Organizational Structure, Design, Culture, And Strategy1070 Words   |  5 Pagesdynamic, adaptable, and efficient. Prosperous companies continually transform and grow to meet the needs of their environment (Jones, 2013). This paper examines the importance of striking a balance between organizational structure, design, culture, and strategy in order to achieve stability in a continually shifting organizational environment. Introduction The brevity of technological changes in communications and product development have produced rapidly changing, turbulent, global markets. Read MoreThe Influence of Leadership on Organizational Culture1744 Words   |  7 PagesTHE INFLUENCE OF LEADERSHIP ON ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Leadership is a matter of intelligence, trustworthiness, humaneness, courage, and discipline . . . Reliance on intelligence alone results in rebelliousness. Exercise of humaneness alone results in weakness. Fixation on trust results in folly. Dependence on the strength of courage results in violence. Excessive discipline and sternness in command result in cruelty. When one has all five virtues together, each appropriate to its function

Effects of Bullying Free Essays

Bullying is defined as a behavior used by a person to deride or ostracize another person, but bullying is far more complex than this simple definition. Bullying, as perceived by many teachers and administrators in the school systems, only exists in the physical form, but bullying takes many forms and does not stop at physical violence. Other forms in which bullying appears are verbal, emotional, and cyber. We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Bullying or any similar topic only for you Order Now Verbal bullying uses words and other verbal tactics to tear down the victim’s self-esteem. Emotional bullying is more traumatic than verbal and focuses on making the victim feel like he or she is isolated and an outcast. Cyber bullying targets victims through social networking and text messaging; bullying victims through the cyber world causes more damage because it gives the victim no escape from their tormentors, even when they are not face to face. No matter the tactic, the severity, or the cause, bullying hurts, and the effects are considerable. Although different people will handle being bullied in different ways, there are three main effects to being bullied: the development of depression, anxiety, or other mental disorders, a decline in academic achievement, and a stunt in social development. One study showed that victims of bullying have more anxiety, sadness, sleep difficulties, low self-esteem, headaches, stomach pain, and general tension than other classmates who are not experiencing bullying (â€Å"Consequences of Bullying†). Bullying leads to the development of anxiety and other mental disorders because it plays on the mind and mental health of the victim by downgrading them and making them believe that they are worthless. When a student goes to school every day and gets pushed, shoved, made fun of, and laughed at, they develop a feeling of being an outcast, or a freak. This view that they develop of themselves causes them to shut down mentally. They can no longer think logically, because their view of logic is disrupted by the taunts and actions of the bully. Evidence indicates that the anxiety the victim develops will escalate into much more severe anxiety disorders such as depression, separation anxiety, and panic disorders (â€Å"Consequences of Bullying†). The disorders that the victim develops will not go away when he or she gets out of school, but they will follow the victim into adulthood. One study conducted by Dr. William Copeland analyzed the mental disorders in adults that were bullied as children. He analyzed these adults when they were children as well, before and after the bullying occurred. Since childhood mental health was evaluated and any preexisting mental disorders could be ruled out, the study showed that the adults’ mental disorders were a long lasting effect of being bullied as children (Pappas). Other side effects of the mental disorders associated with bullying include: suicidal thoughts, harmful actions, and paranoia. Bullying is mentally exhausting on its victims, and they will eventually break down emotionally, physically, and mentally. A major effect of bullying is an overall decline in academic achievement. The victim will start to miss days of school either in fear of the physical harm threatened to them by a bully, or to avoid the verbal humiliation. One study concluded that eight percent of eighth graders in the United States miss at least one day of school per month for fear of bullies (â€Å"Consequences of Bullying†). As they become stressed and paranoid by the bullying, their focus on their classes deteriorates. This nonchalant attitude towards academics results in poor grades and academic performance, which will lead to even more anxiety and embarrassment, and give the victim’s tormentors yet another thing to pick on him or her about (â€Å"Consequences of Bullying†). They will also start avoiding certain parts of the school that are prime areas for bullying such as cafeterias, bathrooms, and even certain hallways if possible. Bullying can affect a student to the point of dropping out of school altogether. They will feel like a lost cause because they are outcasts, their grades are poor, and they are scared to walk through the school doors in the morning. The victim will get out of bed every morning and dread going to school because they will be wondering what will happen to them on that day. Academics will take a backseat to the stress and anxiety of being bullied, because it is all the victim will think about. Academic achievement not only declines for the victim, however. The bully will at times be more focused on bullying another student rather than doing a homework assignment, and even bystanders will become too intrigued in the ossip and stories to pay attention in class. As the bullying gets worse, so does the overall academic performance of bullied, the bully, and the bystander. Social development during and after bullying is almost nonexistent. Victims of bullying often have very few friends and sometimes none at all. Since they possess such high anxiety levels from being bull ied, and have very low self-esteem, they have a hard time making friends because they do not contain the confidence to walk up to someone and start a conversation. They view themselves as an outcast or a freak, and believe that no one wants to be friends with them. They have feelings of isolation and believe that they are not worthy of having friends (â€Å"Consequences of Bullying†). Other kids or students may want to become friends with the victim, but they refrain from making any efforts to reach him or her in fear of being bullied themselves. Other students may also fear disapproval by their group of friends or clique if they were to reach out to a bullied victim. The victim becomes reclusive and socially awkward. This social awkwardness will continue to affect the victim long into adulthood and make job opportunities scarce and dealing with the public a stressful and awkward situation. Bullying is an aggressive behavior that affects the lives of more than twenty five percent of the United States’ children. Whether it is physical, verbal, emotional, or through the virtual world, bullying and its many forms are damaging. It can cause a straight â€Å"A† student to drop out of high school. It can cause a small town girl with a dream to commit suicide. Being bullied changes the victim. The mental trauma he or she goes through will cause anxiety and other mental disorders that will last well into adulthood. Emotionally, the victim takes so much pain until they cannot even feel anymore. They become like stone. Academic performance and achievement will decline, as well as participation in any school related function. Socially, the victim becomes a recluse or an outcast. Making friends becomes close to impossible, and they lose their self-worth. Bullying is more than a behavior; to the victim, it is a prison, and he or she will spend their whole lives trying to break free from the effects of this condemnation. How to cite Effects of Bullying, Papers

Analysis of the Ethical Practices in an IT organization

Question: Evaluate how companies can integrate ethical practices in an IT organization? Answer: Introduction The term ethics primarily refers to a set of values and principles that are utilised by any individual for the purpose of governing his decisions and actions. Every business organisation is guided by ethics to implement its policies, decisions and programs without any kind of hesitation. Ethical culture in a business organisation primarily develops through a close collaboration between workers and leadership management. An ethic based business organisation primarily composed of the following traits mentioned below: Honour: Honest and sincere people often laid the foundation of the ethical pillars of the any business firm. Unfortunately such persons do not receive any recognition for such initiative and the firm often bestows showers of praises to those employees who have helped to raise the shares and stocks of the firm in the open competitive market. Now it is time for such firm to recognise the contribution and sacrifice of those employees who have brought an ethical attachment to their organisation. In achieving such feat they need to exhibit a polite behaviour with the clients and also to face their grievances patiently with proper reply to their queries. Respect: It is very essential for a businessman to earn respect from his subordinates to handle them quite easily. It is essential to be noted that earning respect of the subordinates do not imply zero responsibility on the shoulder of such businessman. It implies dictating his terms and training techniques over his subordinates without any sort of protest or resistance from them. In this respect no businessman should employ subordinates from whom he is unable to earn the required trust and respect which is quite necessary while dealing with the clients. In such scenario he must dismiss such arrogant employees to save the reputation of the organisation from the criticisms of the clients. Customer Focus: The existence of a business firm becomes meaningless if it fails to deliver the demand and requirement of any customer within a fixed deadline. In such scenario people will lost interest to engage in commercial transactions with such organisation. Therefore, in order to regain their confidence and faith the firm must deliver all the requirements of every customer in a true spirit of an ethical organisation. In case it fails to do so it must instantly report to the concerned stakeholders and clients without assuring them with false hopes and promises. Ethics in IT firm The work culture and the relationship between management and employees of an IT firm are often governed by corporate ethics and principles. IT firms unlike other business enterprises have to provide latest available technological facilities and functions to its clients at all costs. Hence the employees of the IT firm often requires to have alert mindset while updating themselves with latest technology and software applications while persuading clients to avail them. Ethics in this scenario mainly plays a significant role. The honest and hard working employees of an IT sector always provide accurate information in response to the query of any client regarding certain technical products and devices. They shall not mislead the client with wrong information for that may tarnish the images of the organisation. So every IT firm while recruiting an employee often focuses on hiring ethic governed employees to enrich the reputation of the organisation in a global competitive market. For estab lishing the relationship of trust and faith the role of ethics is paramount and supreme in respect of an IT firm. When any IT firm is succeeded to establish its reputation in the market with the help of ethics then it receives huge stock of clients and customers which in turn automatically increases the annual average revenue of an IT firm. Recent study has suggested that these ethical principles and policies are often cultivated by an IT firm as a professional tactic to suppress the grievances of the clients in case it fails to deliver to its potential. Peer reviewed articles on the ethical IT solution At present IT industry is marked with wide range of criticisms that mainly comprised of infringing the privacy of the internet users all over the world. This comes with stealing of sensitive and personal information of the users for sinister or mischievous purposes. Sometimes these disturbances are often manipulated by the governing authorities and the IT firm has no option but to succumb to the pressure. Unfortunately, it is the IT firm which is held responsible for such malicious actions. Thus to strike a balance various philanthropic information associations like IFLA Committee on Freedom of Access to Information and Freedom of Expression, Globethics.net and other organisations in favour of IT freedom have participated in a conference known as The World Summit for Information Society to discuss on such unpleasant issues in a friendly atmosphere in Paris. The outcome of this summit meeting is nothing so substantial (Glob Ethics 2014). This is because the ethical issues which are qu ite relevant in todays world but poses some confusion at the same time. Some of these disputed ethical values are mentioned below: Access to knowledge for All: Accessibility to all kinds of information from the internet is a basic right of every user to enrich their base of knowledge. However, an opposite contrary theory is gaining ground around this ethical aspect is that world of internet is always infested with unauthorized contents that are harmful particularly for the children to access. There is still now no favourable solution has been emerged to strike a chord between individual freedom and reasonable restrictions. Besides, government archives often contain secret documents and files that are inaccessible to the viewers. But that cannot be used as a substantial ground for curbing the IT freedom of the users. Information on people comprising of culture, gender and education: Ethical aspect does govern every IT firm to provide accurate information on people including their gender, culture and social life in respect of their geographical location on the planet. However, critics are of the opinion that the contents of such site must be exhibited properly otherwise it may hurt the feelings of the people of the other communities. Privacy: It is an essential base of ethical values of the IT firm. Privacy of all individuals must be respected at all costs. There should not be any incident of hampering the privacy of an individual user. However, critics are of the opinion that it is necessary to monitor the online activities of every user in respective of national security, terrorism and other sinister plots. However, there has been a systematic effort to address some of these disputable issues in an appropriate platform which also include judicial intervention and vocal public opinion and support on these issues to remove the curtain of restriction form the internet. Five ethical and non-ethical practices in an IT firm The core five ethical practices of an IT firm mainly include the following: Employees: IT firms inculcating ethical values will always provide fair and equitable opportunities to every employee to prove their mettle. This also comprised of non discrimination while paying salary and promotion opportunities to extract the best from an employee. Customer: An IT firm must always provide all the technical information in respect of services and products to the customers. The information must be complete as well as accurate to win the good will of the customer everytime. Investors: IT firm governed by ethical values must provide tight security to the money and other financial details of the investors. This also involves paying of interest within a fixed period of time if they have invested in any project of the firm. Competition: While dealing with tough competition from any rival firm. The IT firm based on ethics must not resort to fraudulent means to defeat its rivals. The authority must strongly object to use of such deceptive means tooth and nail. Government: An ethic governed IT firms must always pay all the government dues and taxes without any failure and must also follow its guidelines to the letter. Non-ethical practices Distortion of information: IT firms governed by unethical practices always provide incorrect as well as incomplete information of any services and products to the clients and thus making them confused. Resorting fraudulent means: Dishonest IT firms often resort to deceptive means to beat their rivals and so to project themselves as a winner. Avoiding paying taxes and duties: IT firms governed with unethical principles often tend to evade tax payment and other duties of the government. Displaying fake documents: Dishonest IT firms often exhibits false documents to the investors to evade paying their interests and invested money. Manipulating the feelings of the people: Many IT firms often displays insensitive comments about particular race or religion of people and hence inciting tensions and hostilities among different groups of people. Evaluation of the impacts of ethical principles in an IT organisation The following impacts are mentioned in below: Decent work environment: Ethical practices and principles played a vital role in the development of decent work culture among the employees of an IT firm. Increased work participation: The sense of ethics has compelled both the management and the stuffs to share the burden of their respective tasks without any conflict or friction. Methods for including ethical practices in an IT firm After discussing in details the role of ethical values in governing the policies and commercial approaches of an IT firm we are in favour of two most essential ways of inducting ethical principles in an organisation and these include: Strict enforcement of disciplines: Here the management of an IT firm must be strict enough in using means to earn the ethical values of the employees while assigning them any task. Incentives: Hard working and sincere employees of an IT firm must always be awarded with high incentives to set an example before other non-performing employees on the essence of ethical principles and values. References 1. Glob Ethics 2014, Ethical Dilemmas in the Information Society: How Codes of Ethics Help to Find Ethical, retrieved on 21st May 2015, Solutionshttps://www.globethics.net/documents/4289936/13403236/GE_Global_11_web_final.pdf/0b8e3552-62e4-4495-a576-2f341326891b2. Ethics 2009, The Importance of Ethical Culture: Increasing Trust and Driving Down Risk, retrieved on 21st May 2015, https://www.ethics.org/files/u5/CultureSup4.pdf3. Ethics, Ethical Culture Building: A Modern Business Imperative, retrieved on 21st May 2015, https://www.ethics.org/files/u5/ECOA-Report-FINAL.pdf4. SHRM 2009, Shaping an Ethical Workplace Culture, retrieved on 21st May 2015, https://www.shrm.org/about/foundation/products/documents/9-13%20ethics%20epg%20final.pdf5. Cima Global 2013, Embedding ethical values into the corporate culture, retrieved on 21st May 2015, https://www.cimaglobal.com/Documents/Professional%20ethics%20docs/Embedding_ethical_values_into_the_corporate_culture_report.pdf6. Study 2015, Unethical Behavior in Business: Definition Examples, retrieved on 21st May 2015, https://study.com/academy/lesson/unethical-behavior-in-business-definition-examples.html 7. Josephon Institute, The Hidden Costs of unethical behavior, retrieved on 21st May 2015, https://josephsoninstitute.org/pdf/Report_HiddenCostsUnethicalBehavior.pdf

The control of intellectual property has played an important role in the development of media technologies

Introduction Historically, intellectual property rights, IPR, have played a pivotal role in safeguarding all types of creators in business, scientific and artistic fields. In media technologies, besides providing effective mechanism of protection, the IPR has provided ethical means in which the creators or inventors can appreciate their efforts.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The control of intellectual property has played an important role in the development of media technologies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Although recent years have witnessed a proliferation of creativity and knowledge exceeding the precincts of mainstream protective measures, IPR has continued to evolve, in tandem with these happenings. Media technologies have witnessed more challenges. These challenges have spanned all spectrums of the society. They include ethical, technological, political, and legislative spectrums, among others. Desp ite these issues hampering the process of achieving their success, they have granted opportunities for various stakeholders involved in devising methods which fix their effective utilisation. Hence, in recent years, laws, policies and technologies among other strategies, have been constituted to control how media technologies can be used without compromising the intellectual property rights. The author describes how the control of intellectual property rights has contributed to the development of media technologies. In achieving this objective, the author notes that various strategies implemented focusing on intellectual property rights have been pivotal in controlling how media technologies are produced, distributed and used. Measures, such as legislations and technology among others, have provided an elaborate framework in using media technologies. Besides, various laws have been enforced to control or protect intellectual property. Further, the author demonstrates using Napster a nd Sony Vs Universal Studios as case studies to demonstrate issues that have resulted by not embracing the role of intellectual property rights. Discussion For several years, legal controls have been used to safeguard the society against threats which can occur unexpectedly. Legal controls have provided an effective mechanism in addressing the issue of intellectual property rights. Presently, the world has become a global village; the dawn of the internet has resulted in what we call digital revolution.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the media industry, digital revolution has created what is known as new digital media; hence, digital media has become a common phrase widely embraced in technology and media industries. It is a technology which is enabled by the internet. New digital media has imposed a challenge to conventional copyright policy. Thus, many organisations owning copyrights argue that the digital media have simplified prospects for intellectual theft. Intellectual Property Online (53) illustrates that new media have provided new challenges in terms of intellectual property rights. Intellectual Property Online notes that devising higher protection standards than was with earlier terms of copyright law will help to neutralise loss of revenues (57). Legal Control Measures and Controls The Digital Millennium Copyright Act and the European Union Copyright Directive Despite the differences, Digital Millennium Copyright Act, DMCA and the European Union Copyright Act, EUCA, have balanced the opposing differences in protecting digital media. The acts own a similar purpose of fixing a secure environment for relaying digital media contents (Intellectual Property Online 58). The Acts contain terms making it unlawful to circumvent copy-protection technologies in order to access unauthorised content. The acts also provide protection to other illega l activities such as distribution, production and making content available with intent of encouraging circumvention. Intellectual property owners are concerned about the illegal appropriation of contents as it restricts them from profiting from their efforts. The DMCA and EUCD with an aim of disciplining unlawful appropriation outlined specific rules to incorporate technology protecting copyright work and granting honest users to fulfill their rights (Lucchi). The anti-circumvention provision of the DMCA prevents three types of misdeeds. According to Digital Rights Management, it outlaws evading technological measures that prevent access to copyrighted work (104). Secondly, it forbids trafficking in devices that can improve circumvented access controls. Lastly, it restricts trafficking in circumvention devices for technological measures that safeguard the copyright, owner’s exclusive rights such as copying and distribution. On the other hand, EUCD promotes three areas in its strategy. These areas are the distribution rights, reproduction rights and the rights of communication (Lucchi). The Act also seeks member countries to provide legal procedures to guard against circumvention for technological measures that cover works. It criminalises circumvention in any approach regardless of the rights it protects (Digital Rights Management 106). The two laws, presently in force, provide content owners with a stronger opportunity to implement their own regulations and limits on the use and access of digital content.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The control of intellectual property has played an important role in the development of media technologies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Intellectual Property Enforcement New European Pattern To ensure secure digital media content and guarantee strong individual user’s deeds, the EU enforced the intellectual property rights as a regulation that compels member countries to generate decisive, reasonable, proportionate procedures, and remedies against copying and piracy. Davis explains that these measures were aimed at providing absolute protection to copyright violations (78). The European Union asserted that enforcing the law was necessary because without a careful and effective security, creativity and innovation was deemed to die. This regulation compels that it is necessary to ensure the substantive law on intellectual property is administered properly across the society. This is because administering is a key objective for success for protecting intellectual property. The European Union notes that a rapid increase in piracy and intellectual property rights and violation of intellectual property is a phenomenon which has a global outlook. When left unchecked, it poses a dire threat to society. Hence, the enforcement measures and other procedures are essential to defeat the challenge. Copyright Legislations Many con ventional and envisaged applications embracing digital media focus on transferring, recording or finding contents instead of transforming contents to new ones. For instance, applications that would have easily recombined personal media with elements from other public and other mass media, offer new areas in which copyright law and policy succeed (Lucchi). Most copyright regulations have shifted towards giving greater security and universal rights to copyright owners. According to Litman (2000), this illustrates a shift from the conventional pattern of prohibition by the acceptable use of copyrighted materials to all unauthorised use as illegal. Besides, older protection that was envisaged under the US copyright laws, for instance, is facing a threat with the shift to the digital domain. This, according to Stallman (2004), has led to the role of copyright entirely reversed. The digital technology has transformed it into a system that allows producers to confine the public into apprec iating the works of authors. In the digital communication layout, there are typically developments which have dramatically changed the course of accessing copyrighted information. According to Davis, these developments are zero marginal cost of copying, negligible cost of posting or producing new information on the internet and zero cost of transmission over the internet (80). With zero costs for duplication of information, the cyberspace technologies feel threatened. Therefore, there is a need to restrict ‘’theft’, by embracing new technological advancement that encourage fair use’ principle, a fundamental aspect of copyright principle (Davis 83).Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Fair Use The intellectual property rights, IPR, have simplified the manner in which the society engages in the proper use and access of copyrighted content. This has been achieved through a concept known as fair use. In the United States, the Fair Use Doctrine encourages acceptable use of copyrighted materials without permission or license, for purposes such as news reporting, comments and teaching, among others. The statute has extended fair use in various ways (Borland). This includes time-shifting, in using a VCR to time-shift when a person is viewing television programs and format shifting as in creating an MP3 format version of an audio CD that a person already owns. Assessing when to use of copyrighted content under fair use has been analysed by the courts on a case by case basis. This has been done using the four codes. These codes include the intent and spirit of the use (whether for nonprofit aims or commercial), the amount and substantiality of the potion used for the copy righted work and impact of use on the potential market. These codes are covered under the United States Code (Dittmann 7). However, fixing fair use has been a difficult task because of the contradictory interpretations set forth by legal scholars. The distinction of rationalisation hinges on whether fair use is a confirmatory right that permits copying in specific conditions or just a defense used in cases of copyright violation (Dittmann 6). When understood along the confirmatory right attitude, fair use is an essential part of copyright law that safeguards the constitutionally guaranteed rights of an individual’s free expression and free speech. On the contrary, when fair use is understood along the defensive line, copyright creators and technologies that enable them can limit a person access to digital media; granting fair use no longer an alternative available to the wider society. Copyright creators would then control access and use of digital media. Technology Control M easures The rapid technological progress in information and communication has fixed new legislative and judicial effort to restructure intellectual property rights in the digital media. This is to fix equilibrium between consumers and the legal owners. Hence, in today’s information society, technology control is directed by various international conventions and compliance with the state legislative practices. Technology control legislation then supports enforceability. Acts such as EUCD and DMCA recognise a legal status and offer a candid constitutional protection for copyright management and technological measures preventing unauthorised use and determining the conditions for permitted use (Lucchi). According to Borland, technology provides no issue to any legal control. It oversees transactions on an authoritative manner (Borland). Because of these characteristics of technology, intellectual property laws have undergone various amendments to support the needs of the technol ogical world. The role of technology in safeguarding intellectual property has been varied. One of the roles it achieves is preventing users from gaining access or engaging in practices such as copying. It also allows creation of licensing business models. These models permit holders to have the right of choosing their own discretion terms and conditions for use and access to their work. They also set in technical devices used in accomplishing their tasks. In absolute terms, technology cultivates the authority or grants the rights holder privileges to determine how his/her work should be used. Borland explains that different technological expressions have been expanding to keep contents from unauthorised copyright infringement and ease overseeing the use of media by the society (Borland). Terms such as technological protection measures, self-help systems, automated rights and digital rights management systems are springing as a result. These expressions point to an automated archite cture that can manage and protect distributing digital works. Besides, these measures provide easy transfer of digital works from inventors and publishers to consumers. Technological features to Protect access rights and control The inclusion of copy protection devices has been an element of various digital media. Several methods have been employed to ensure reasonable access to contents is guaranteed (Stenger). These measures are grouped into rights control and access control. Rights control limits a user’s capacity to engage the rights of the content owner. Access control involves a concept of access privileges to succeed a given operation. Access controls have granted legal protection than conventional controls. The rights holders are guaranteed more incentives of use than rights controls to improve stronger legal protection against circumvention. Transformative Technology Digital media technology has fixed significant changes in sharing and producing information. These ch anges have had a sweeping effect on copyright law and policies. Dittmann illustrates in his journal, IEEE Multi-Media: â€Å"This has had a deeper impact on digital media, that media can easily be expressed in the form or meaning’ (5). While he noted this transformative characteristic of digital media as a risk to technological and copyright defense actions, it is the transformative environment of the digital media that most promises protection of fair use rights (Stenger). Media technologists are involved in inventing new ways. These ways make the present and future digital media support intellectual property laws and policies that promote freedom of expressions and fair use privilege. Hence, the media technologies will strive to safeguard users and not primarily the data stored in it. According to Stenger, technologies strengthen and support transformative elements of digital media by making them available, reusable and accessible through establishing and using metadata (S tenger). Evolving technology Current trends in information technology have provided new alternatives in safeguarding intellectual property rights. Though some have proved successful, others have contributed to more infringement opportunities. Initiatives to establish barriers, for example, the Secure Digital Music Initiative, SDMI, have emphatically failed. Similarly, other efforts such as the Macrovision’s ‘snaps and crackles’ technology have also failed. Borland, in his article â€Å"Snaps, Crackles May Stop CD Piracy†, illustrates that ‘snaps and crackles’ technology inserts bits in a PCM encoded music on a CD (Borland). When such a CD is compressed with an MP3 algorithm and preserved with the data file on a computer system, the music gets corrupted with audible crackles and snaps on playback (Borland). These industry actions, although viewed as a big achievement, do not guarantee security of content. They are short-term remedies. Case Stud ies The Napster – Illegal File Swapping Illegal file swapping draws a common global threat to intellectual property rights enforcement. File swapping involves having a file sharing software or peer distribution system. The service allows users to freely exchange or share music files or other copyrighted content on the internet. Because these files are protected from copyright, less legitimacy has been attached to MP3 file size. McCourt and Patrick illustrate that Napster, which was founded in 1999, was a well-known online business which embraced peer-to peer network in heightening illegal file sharing practice (335). The Napster example illustrates the effect of intellectual property rights issue in the new digital world. Napster was an online music business which provided music sharing services. According to McCourt and Patrick, Napster operated on the idea that when someone pays for a given song or album, he had a right to ‘share’ with others (336). During the pre-internet days, sharing convention was widely embraced, because any person would give a friend a book or a video cassette without minding copyright infringement. It is well noted that non-commercial consumer copying is a fair use under the copyright regulation. However, in the digital age, things have changed because of the unlimited number of copies which can be made. Napster music sharing succeeded three distinct phases. The first phase was a user browsed the Napster website and entered the music of choice using his/her personal computer. The user’s machine then searched similar machines on the internet running a similar program. Once the search was over and the music found, the user then selects the device and transfers the MP3 music file containing the music. The Napster peer-to-peer technology allowed online connected computers to connect without passing, by means of a central file server (McCourt and Patrick, 342). This established a system that constituted internetw orked computers with share files stored in a single computer and controlled by simple share software. Napster had to face many legal issues because of its service of free music sharing. This was because it was violating the copyright rules of the owners of the music. After lengthy and protracted legal battles involving intellectual property infringement, Napster had to submit and presently, the e-business offers subscription services. It pays royalties on copyrighted contents. Although Napster story has cooled, many other e-based organisations have taken the Napster theory and enhanced it. According to Stenger, among the ideas evolving after Napster collapsed is that some e-based businesses have created offshore Napster sites. These sites blend two lengthy issues of the legal jurisdiction of the internet and the intellectual property rights (Stenger). Stenger, in his article â€Å"Entrepreneur Proposes Offshore Napster Clone†, notes the companies which compete with the Napste r ideas use the pig Latin, or other unique misspelling to obscure music filenames blocked by Napster (Stenger). Napster case shows the challenge that most mainstream music industry businesses have in this internet era. Thus, these issues are anchored on assumptions of technological obstacles that no longer prevail. Despite the courts neutralising the Napster case, the challenge of music sharing is common; undoubtedly, the future will encounter many problems. Perhaps, possibilities of music intellectual property rights will move away from the ownership model to licensing model. However, whether the strategy will reduce music piracy is still under discussion. Sony Vs Universal Studios 1984 Sony and Universal Studios were some of the leading media industries in 1980’s. In 1980’s, most media industries used cassette and audio tapes to distribute, play and store music. Besides, using these media simplified copying of music, hence, people would do themselves without much dif ficulty. This scenario elicited a threat to organisations producing and marketing recorded music. This was because an entire album could be recorded off the air with reasonable reliability. However, loss of music quality was causing an outcry from the listening public, besides, the copies successfully produced were poorer in precision. Besides, commercially produced cassette tapes would be borrowed and duplicated. These processes contributed to loss of royalties to the musicians. This was a similar issue that arose between Sony and Universal Studios in 1984, when home video recorder was introduced in the recording industry. Home video recorded made it possible to record video programs such as motion pictures off the air. This signaled that royalties were not paid for subsequent viewing. This scenario prompted a significant legal battle, pitting producers of blank tape and tape recording devices against content producers. This resulted in a court case between the two media industries . The results of the conflict were that consumers could lawfully record content off the air for personal use, they could also sell. However, whereas commercial practice of using such materials was prohibited, home use was not. Conclusion Various technological barriers and legal sanctions have contributed to redefining how media technologies are used in contemporary world. Hence, they will continue to be vital in protecting intellectual property rights. This has been successful, especially in preventing corporate piracy. Hence, at a personal level, they will not be sufficient because the technological barrier has decreased and is unlikely to increase by strategies such as encryption methods incorporated in volumes of produced items. Legal interventions such as Digital Millennium Act and European Union among others, have streamlined media technologies’ use by providing effective guidelines. Hence, with more technologies emerging, these interventions will endeavour to evolve to address the intricacies that come with new technologies. Work Cited Borland, John. â€Å"Snaps, Crackles May Stop CD Piracy, 2012. Web.. https://www.zdnet.com/ Davis, Randall. â€Å"The Digital Dilemma,† Communications of the ACM 44, (2001): 77- 83. Print Digital Rights Management. MIT Alumni Association. Technology Review, (n.d): 102- 109. Print Dittmann, Jana. â€Å"Copyright-Copywrong,† IEEE Multi-Media, (2000): 14-17. Print Intellectual Property Online. A Landmark Case,† Strategic Finance, (n.d): 52-57, Litman, Joseph, The demonization of piracy, 2000; Web.. Lucchi, Nicola. Intellectual Property Rights in Digital Media: A Comparative Analysis of Legal Protection, Technological Measures and New Business Models under E.U. and U.S. Law, 2005. Web. https://law.bepress.com/expresso/eps/615/ Marc, Davis. â€Å"From Pirates to Patriots: Fair Use for Digital Media.† IEEE Multimedia, (2002):4-7. Print McCourt, Tom, and Patrick Burkart. When creators, corporati ons and consumers collide: Napster and the development of on-line music distribution. Media, Culture Society, (2003): 333–350. Print Stenger, Richard. â€Å"Entrepreneur Proposes Offshore Napster Clone,† 2001. Web. http://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/internet/03/06/napster.offshore/index.html This essay on The control of intellectual property has played an important role in the development of media technologies was written and submitted by user Tomas Carlson to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Essay about Socrates and Crito

Essay about Socrates and Crito Essay about Socrates and Crito â€Å"Bromance† between Socrates and Crito It is very obvious that Crito is Socrates’ closest friend. An entire dialogue is dedicated to him in Plato’s Five Dialogues and he is mentioned in the other two dialogues read for class. Although it is unknown how this friendship started and developed so strongly it is obvious to see how much Socrates means to Crito. As Aristotle stated, â€Å"friendship is most necessary for our life. For no one would choose to live without friends† (119). Although both Crito and Socrates have additional friends, none of those friendships are as perfect as their own. As we read Nicomachean Ethics, we are told that complete friendship is â€Å"the friendship of good people similar in virtue† (Aristotle 122). I do not doubt this definition but it is also important not to forget that complete friendship has more aspects to it than similar virtue. Crito is perceived as a man devoted to friendship in all of the dialogues we have read. He is always showing his loyalty to Socrates especially when Crito offers to be Socrates’ benefactor in two instances. Crito proposed to pay the fine, if Socrates’ penalty is a fine, from the trial in the Apology and again offers to pay to bribe the informers to let Socrates leave just as he bribed the informers to let him in before visiting hours. Crito chooses to be a friend of utility in these instances only after they have a complete friendship which justifies the offering despite the fact that Socrates did not even take advantage of the opportunity. As Aristotle tells us, â€Å"base people are those who are friends for pleasure or utility without already having a complete friendship† (124). So this validates that Socrates and Crito are good and not base people. And according to Aristotle, â€Å"what appears good appears loveable† (125). So not only are they good people, they are also loveable. Though it becomes apparent that Crito loves Socrates more than Socrates loves Cri to. Especially when reading the Apology, when we observe Crito trying to convince Socrates to leave prison and fulfill his life. Crito tells Socrates that if he chooses to die he is betraying his sons and himself, giving his friends a bad reputation because they failed in saving him, and he is being unjust to his life since he is not saving it when he has a chance. Unfortunately, these arguments were to no prevail because Socrates is marginally egotistical and believes that his reasoning is the most just and should be the course taken. This example of Crito pleading to Socrates but later accepting Socrates’ justification points toward another classification of friendship between the two friends. Socrates and Crito are not equals. Instead, they are unequals because Socrates is more of a teacher figure to Crito, making him superior to Crito. This also gives the friendship a different type of love. Crito has to love Socrates more to make the friendship proportional. â₠¬Å"The more beneficial person [Socrates] must be loved more than he loves for when the loving accords with the comparative worth of the friends, equality is achieved in a way, and this seems to be proper to friendship† (Aristotle 127). This difference in equality does not mean that the friendship will not endure. We have proof that it does exist until the one friend, Socrates, dies but â€Å"in friendship it is equality primarily in quantity and secondary in worth† (Aristotle 127). So if there is effort, then the friendship will continue to exist until either death in this case or with negligence. However, this inequality is interesting because it could suggest another type of inequality. This one regarding a separation in virtue of good to superior, but I do not believe this to be true. According to Aristotle, if one is excellent while one is only good then there cannot be a complete friendship since it needs the be level virtues. Therefore, the inequality in c ommunity is the only inequality in the relationship. Since

Designing the Best Application Essays

Designing the Best Application Essays As someone who has written and edited dozens of application essays, I can tell you from experience that the best application essays are those that are creatively presented. There is no doubt in my mind, as a matter of fact, that the reason I was accepted to my college of choice was mostly due to the creativity behind my purpose statement. In order to give you a better idea of what I mean, I am going to illustrate how I designed my application package. As anyone who is applying to college will tell you, the application form consists of several general information inquiries, the essay section, as well as some short answer questions. When I was applying to school I knew my grades werent my strongest suit, so I decided to make my application package a work of art. Rather than simply filling out the application form by hand, I had my answers professionally printed on the pages. Then, I affixed the pages of the form on to heavy pieces of card-stock paper, so it looked as though each page of my application form was beautifully framed. For my application essay, I also had it professionally printed and then matted on card-stock paper. In addition, I included corresponding illustrations which I attached to the opposite sides of each page. Then, once I had my application, my essay, my short answer questions, and my illustrations beautifully printed and matted, I took everything to a professional print company where I had the pages bound in book-form. As Im certain you can tell, I spend a tremendous amount of time on my admissions essays and their presentations. When all was said and done, it took nearly two months to complete. Be assured, however, that the time and effort was more than worth it. I was accepted to every school to which I applied. If you are interested in learning how you can create the best application essays possible, dont hesitate to click on the adjacent link where you will find lots of ideas.

How technology, with particular emphasis on the internet and Essay - 4

How technology, with particular emphasis on the internet and computers, has changed world culture - Essay Example ideoconferencing like communication channels help people to conduct meeting in the virtual world just like real world, no matter where the people are located. Social networking is another latest development in computer technology. It helps people from distant parts of the world to assemble in a common web platform and share their ideas, views, photos and videos. Social networks play a vital role in enhancing the intercultural communication. It should be noted that increase in intercultural communication may definitely contribute heavily to global peace and harmony. The recent revolutions in Libya and Egypt are often labeled as Facebook revolution. This is because of the huge role played by Facebook in empowering the people in these countries. Business is another area in which computers and internet have brought huge changes. Instead of typewriters and fax machines, computers and internet are used in the business world at present for preparing and sending documents. Earlier, documents were stored in paper formats in the business world. However, at present such things are stored in digital format so that the data may not be conserved for longer periods. It is quite possible for the business executives to conduct business meeting and negotiations in the virtual world just like real world. Moreover, computers and internet help business people to take quick decisions. Education is another area in which computer and internet have brought meaningful changes. Instead of traditional classrooms, computer assisted classrooms are used in educational institutions at present. Students can get any information at their fingertips with the help of a single click, from internet. The difficulties in searching particular information in a book are completely eliminated by computers and internet. Distant education made possible by computers and internet. It is easy for a student in America to get tuition classes from a teacher in India with the help of computers and internet at

The overriding concerns that caused delays and cost escalation in the Essay

The overriding concerns that caused delays and cost escalation in the construction of the tunnel link between England and France - Essay Example The main purpose of the research is to present that the twentieth century witnessed developments on many fronts at the same time including construction. A number of hallmark projects were commissioned in the twentieth century such as New York’s Empire State Building and others that served to boost mankind’s confidence in taking on large projects. A large number of mega projects spanned progress in the twentieth century but taking on and executing these projects represented large challenges. The early parts of the twentieth century saw randomised approaches to project management in order to deal with large projects. However, as time proceeded and human experience increased in dealing with large projects, the approach to such projects became more and more structured. A large amount of advancement has occurred on the fronts of project management although there is still much ground to be covered. Initially project management was largely restricted to dealing with the techni cal aspects of projects especially the larger projects. In time it was found that project management needed to deal with other aspects of projects such as financing, scheduling, quality initiatives and others. Development on these fronts has been steady and has resulted from learning from various mega projects. The unique nature of mega projects means that the same ideas are not equally applicable to different projects even though they may hold similar grounds. One project that sparked the imaginations of mankind was the Channel Tunnel project that was initiated to build a fixed link between England and France. Historically the English Channel has represented a major obstacle to crossing over into United Kingdom. In order to deal with this challenge some kind of a system was required that could facilitate the movement of goods and people between both nations. This project was all the more critical for England because it did not have a direct link to mainland Europe. Such a link was necessary to ensure trade and commerce between England and mainland Europe. Prior to the tunnel’s opening, the only modes of transport available included ferries and airplanes. Both modes of transport were not only expensive but were at times dictated by weather over the English Channel making crossing or flying difficult. Early ideas to deal with this challenge included large iron bridges with spans of many kilometres. However, the technical challenges facing the creation of such spans and bridges were large and rather insurmountable. Constant tries on the British and French sides finally saw the emergence of a tunnel system beneath the English Channel that could finally connect both countries with ease. The movement from mere ideas to a practical working system represented one of the largest challenges undertaken by mankind. The creation of the Channel Tunnel was confronted by myriad challenges such as costing, planning, execution, finance, teamwork, quality, safety and sch eduling amongst others. When the project was finally completed, it was found that the project was delayed as well as overpriced when compared to original estimates. This paper analyses the overriding concerns that caused delays and cost escalation in the construction of the tunnel link between England and France. 3. Problems 3.1. Pre-Planning The creation of such a gargantuan tunnel system to accommodate trains and shuttle services required taking over challenges on many fronts. The primary challenge to initiate the Channel Tunnel project was garnering the right kind of political will to create this project. The political will garnered to initiate the C

Old Spice Essay Example for Free

Old Spice Essay Old Spice is one of the most popular companies in America that specializes in male grooming products. It was founded by William Lightfoot Schultz in 1934 and began by creating products for women in 1937, closely followed by male cologne in 1938. The company originated in the colonial times and chose the theme accordingly, thus the Colonial Sailing ship became the Old Spice trademark. It wasn’t until the 1990’s when Old Spice changed their colonial sailing ship to the more modern sailing ships and released many forms of deodorant, body wash and body sprays. During this time period Old Spice began advertising their products focusing on how men are continuously attempting to attract women. From 1990 to 2010 Old spice’s advertisements have gradually evolved in the way they entice men that their products will help men become more attractive to women. Through commercials Old Spice has convinced men that their products will aid in satisfying man’s greatest need, a woman. In 1996 Old Spice released a commercial of a man walking off a sailboat his back facing sun hiding his identity leaving the audience in suspense wondering who it was. At the same time they show a beautiful woman stumbling upon herself in a crowd in confusion looking for someone. Soon later she stops to catch her breathe and finds a man, a tall, well built man with a captains hat who is looking at a painting of a sail boat tossing and turning in the sea. Another man sees this confused woman and approaches her but unfortunately she walks away to the sailor. At this moment a deep dominating voice says, â€Å" Some men would rather live their lives sheltered in the harbor, and some would rather sail into life with the unmistakable scent of Old Spice.† As the couple walks away the other man walks to the painting and finds a bottle of Old Spice cologne and smiles. This commercial shows that the woman chose the sailor because he was wearing Old Spice cologne and shows men that there is still hope to find a woman. Old Spice also has a line of Body Spray, Deodorant, and Fragrance. On one of the body spray commercials two teenage boys were trying to ask the same girl out, one boy tried to read a poem and give her flowers while the other boy sprayed on Old Spice body spray and just sat next to her. He immediately won her heart. This advertisement implies that women are simply attracted to good smelling boys. About 12 years later Old Spice commercials emphasized on a different topic, they changed the idea of focusing on men getting women to how Old Spice makes you manlier. The commercial starts off with a skinny short young male dressed as Steve Urkel walking up to a sexy woman in a revealing dress. The woman says hi and instead of replying back the young man runs away in embarrassment making a weird high pitch noise. The camera then zooms out showing the popular LL Cool J, a massive muscular man. He admits that the embarrassing boy is him but says that was all before he started using Old Spice body spray and body wash. Emphasizing that the product made him manlier. Recently in 2010 Old Spice released a new commercial during the super bowl incorporating how Old Spice makes you manlier and can help get women. In this commercial; however, the character is not convincing the men but convincing the women. A tall, well built, dark man in a towel holding a bottle of Old Spice body wash. He addresses the women and asks questions which compare himself to there man and asks the women if their man should use Old Spice body wash. He then follows that question with other question such as; do you want a man who can bake your favorite cake in the kitchen he built with his hands? Then jumps into a hot tub doing a swan dive. The hot tub then falls down and we see him on a motorcycle holding a bottle of Old Spice body wash asking, â€Å" Well ladies should your man smell like an Old Spice man? You tell me†. In this commercial Old Spice shows that with their product a man could make a cake, built a kitchen with his hands, be able to jump into a hot tub which is shallow, and land on a motorcycle. This shows that Old Spice makes men manlier and women are attracted to manly men. This advertisement has evolved from the older commercials in the way that it no longer convinces men as well as women and yet keeps its main idea that Old Spice makes men manlier and attractive for women. Over time Old Spice has observed reality and adapted its commercials accordingly. They started off by trying to convince men that their products will help them attract women. Then went on to persuade men that it will make them manlier, with more confidence. In the present day Old Spice realized that women tend to buy their partners products so they aimed towards women inducing them with handsome attractive shirtless men persuading them to buy Old Spice products. From the first advertisement to the most recent one Old Spice has kept the same mentality in all of their advertisements.

Depression in Americas Teens :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Depression in America's Teens Teenage Depression. Everywhere you look these two words appear together as one, in newspapers and magazines, as well as in scholarly reports. Teenage depression is one of today's "hot topics" this among other teenage mental health problems, has been brought to the forefront of public consciousness in recent years after several incidents involving school shootings (CQ 595). The environment that teens grow up in today is less supportive and more demanding than it was twenty years ago. Not only are the numbers of depressed teens rising, but children are also being diagnosed at younger and younger ages. Studies have found that, "There is an estimated 1.5-3 million American children and adolescents who suffer from depression, a condition unrecognized in children until about 20 years ago" (CQR 595). This increase in depression is due to social factors that teenagers have to deal with everyday. A recent study found that, "About five percent of teenagers have major depression at any one time. Depression can be very impairing, not only for the affected teen, but also for his or her family-and too often, if not addressed, depression can lead to substance abuse or more tragic events" (NAMI.org). Gender roles and other societal factors including the pressures on girls to look and act a certain way, the pressures on boys to suppress their emotions and put on a tough front and the pressures on both sexes to do well in school and succeed, all contribute to depression in teens today. Depression is a growing problem which crosses gender lines and one that needs to be dealt with with more than just medication. Clinical depression goes beyond sadness or having a bad day. It is a form of mental illness that affects the way one feels, thinks, and acts. Depression in children can lead to failure in school, alcohol or other drug abuse and even suicide. The warning signs of depression fall into four different categories: emotional signs, cognitive signs (those involving thinking), physical complaints, and behavioral changes. Depending upon the degree of depression, a child may experience a few symptoms or many. Also, the severity of each symptom may vary. According to the CQ Researcher, "School

My Toy Essay

1. What are the special days celebrated in your country? There are many special days celebrated in my country. Such as Tet holiday, beginning from January the first on the Lunar Calendar National holiday, Septemper the second Independence day, April 30th 2. Which is your favourite and why? I like Tet holiday the most because I can meet my cosins, relatives, friends who live far away. People get together to eat, drink, and entertain themselves . I also receive â€Å"lucky money† in red envelopes. Besides, I take part in many traditional customs with my family such as cooking sticky rice cake, playing tug of war, going to pagoda to wish good things for my family. And I can hang out with my friends and don’t worry about anything. 3. What do you think is the most important festival in your country? Tet holiday is the most important festival for Vietnamese people. It’s the start of a new year and the Vietnamese feel that having a good start is essential to having a good year.These are funny and happy days that people prepare and welcome the new year together. In addition, it is a wonderful occasion for Vietnamese families to reunite and remember their ancestors. 4. In what way do people celebrate the festival? Most people start to clean and decorate their houses from top to bottom a week or two before the Lunar New Year . It is a common belief that cleaning the house will get rid of bad fortunes associated with the old year. Some people paint their houses to start a new year with lucky things and decorate with festive items . Besides, people are also busy shopping to buy new clothes for themselves, and their children a month prior to the New Year. 5. Do people prepare any special food for the occasions? Food plays a major role in the Tet holiday. Some typical Tet’s foods are sweets, coconut jam, fruit candies, melon seeds, stew pork with eggs, and especially sticky rice cake. Tet meals are usually bigger and more delicious than our daily ones. 6. Which do people prefer to spend with family or with friends? Usually people prefer to spend time with their family because Tet holiday is the time for family and indeed the only time of the year when the whole family gather together 7. How did people celebrate the festival in the  past? In the past, one or two days before Tet, every family prepares and cooks Banh Chung around a warm fire. It is also the time for parents to tell their children folklore stories. Nowadays, families which live in villages still maitain making Banh Chung before New Years but the people in the city do not. They don’t have time and prefer to buy it. Besides, many families also light firecrackers and fireworks to celebrate, but now this custom has changed because it is illegal in our country. 8. How has the way been changed and why? Nowadays , firecrackers are illegal in our country. So this tradition has changed. Some people even prefer to take a holiday instead of going back to their parents’s home to spend Tet holiday. And, some rich of families, aren’t excited to buy clothes for the New Year because they buy their all year around. And, some traditional food such as sticky rice cakes are often bought as a department store in the supermaket, maket instead of being cook at home because they are quite busy with their work, even they have no time to clean and decorate their house.

Decision Analysis

CREATE Research Archive Published Articles & Papers 1-1-1980 Structuring Decision Problems for Decision Analysis Detlof von Winterfeldt University of Southern California, [email  protected] edu Follow this and additional works at: http://research. create. usc. edu/published_papers Recommended Citation von Winterfeldt, Detlof, â€Å"Structuring Decision Problems for Decision Analysis† (1980). Published Articles & Papers. Paper 35. http://research. create. usc. edu/published_papers/35 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by CREATE Research Archive.It has been accepted for inclusion in Published Articles & Papers by an authorized administrator of CREATE Research Archive. For more information, please contact [email  protected] edu. Acta Psychologica 45 (1980) 71-93 0 North-Holland Publishing Company STRUCTURING DECISION PROBLEMS FOR DECISION ANALYSIS * Detlof von WINTERFELDT ** University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90007, USA Structuring decisio n problems into a formally acceptable and manageable format is probably the most important step of decision analysis.Since presently no sound methodology for structuring exists, this step is still an art left to the intuition and craftsmanship of the individual analyst. After introducing a general concept of structuring, this paper reviews some recent advances in structuring research. These include taxonomies for problem identification and new tools such as influence diagrams and interpretative structural modeling. Two conclusions emerge from this review: structuring research is still limited to a few hierarchical concepts and it tends to ignore substantive problem aspects that delineate a problem it its real world context.Consequently structuring research has little to say about distinctions between typical problem classes such as regulation, siting, or budget allocation. As an alternative the concept of â€Å"prototypical decision analytic structures† is introduced. Such st ructures are developed to meet the substantive characteristics of a specific problem (e. g. , siting a specific Liquid Natural Gas plant) but they are at the same time general enough to apply to similar problems (industrial facility siting). As an illustration, the development of a prototypical analytic structure for environmental standard setting is described.Finally, some typical problem classes are examined and some requirements for prototypical structures are discussed. An introduction to problem structuring Decision analysis can be divided into four steps: structuring the problem; formulating inference and preference models; eliciting probabilities and utilities; and exploring the numerical model results. Prac* This research was supported by a grant from the Department of Defense and was monitored by the Engineering Psychology Programs of the Office of Naval Research, under contract # NOOO14-79C-0529.While writing this paper, the author discussed the problem of structuring exte nsively with Helmut Jungermann. The present version owes much to his thought. Please don’t take footnote 3 too seriously. It is part of a footnote war between Ralph Keeney and me. ** Presently with the Social Science Research Institute, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, CA 90007, (213) 741-6955. 12 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems titioners of decision analysis generally agree that structuring is the most important and difficult step of the analysis.Yet, until recently, decision analytic research has all but ignored structuring, concentrating instead on questions of modeling and elicitation. As a result, structuring was, and to some extent still is, considered the ‘art’ part of decision analysis. This paper examines some attempts to turn this art into a science. Trees are the most common decision analytic structures. Decision trees, for example, represent the sequential aspects of a decision problem (see Raiffa 1968 ; Brown et al. 1974). Other examples are goal trees for the representations of values (Keeney and Raiffa 1976) and event trees for the representation f inferential problem aspects (Kelly and Barclay 1973). In fact, trees so much dominate decision analytic structures that structuring is often considered synonymous to building a tree. This paper, however, will adopt a more general notion of decision analytic structuring. According to this notion, structuring is an imaginative and creative process of translating an initially ill-defined problem into a set of welldefined elements, relations, and operations. The basic structuring activities are identifying or generating problem elements (e. g. , events, values, actors, decision alternatives) nd relating these elements by influence relations, inclusion relations, hierarchical ordering relations, etc. The structuring process seeks to formally represent the environmental (objective) parts of the decision problem and the decision makers†™ or experts’ (subjective) views, opinions, and values. Graphs, maps, functional equations, matrices, trees, physical analogues, flow charts, and venn diagrams are all possible problem representations. In order to be useful structures for decision analysis, such representations must facilitate the subsequent steps of modeling, elicitation, and numerical nalysis. Three phases can be distinguished in such a generalized structuring process. In the first phase the. problem is identified. The elements which are generated in this phase are the substantive features of the problem: the decision maker(s); the generic classes of alternatives, objectives, and events; individuals or groups affected by the decision; characteristics of the problem environment. This list is pruned by answering questions such as: what is the purpose of the analysis? For whom is the analysis to be performed? Which alternatives can the decision maker truly control?At this stage only very rough relations betw een problem elements are constructed. Examples include organizational relations D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 73 among decision makers, influence relations between classes of actions and events, and rough groupings of objectives. Products of this problem identification step are usually not very formal, and are seldom reported in the decision analytic literature. They may be in the form of diagrams, graphs, or ordered lists. Among the few documented examples are Hogarth et al. (1980) for the problem of city planning and Fischer and von Winterfeldt 1978) for the problem of setting environmental standards. In the second structuring step, an overall analytic structure is developed. The elements generated in this step are possible analytic problem representations. Besides tree structures, these may include more complex structures previously developed for similar problems such as screening structures for siting decisions or signal detection structures for medical decis ion making. Paradigmatic structures of alternative modeling approaches (e. g. , systems dynamics or linear programming) which could fit the problem should also be examined at this step [ 1 I.A creative activity in this structuring phase is to relate and combine part structures, e. g. , simulation structures with evaluation structures, or decision trees of different actors. From the candidate structures and their combinations an overall structure is selected which is judged most representative of the problem and manageable for further modeling and elicitation. Only a handful of analytic structures have been developed which are more complex than decision trees. Gardiner and Ford (in press) combined simulation and evaluation structures.Keeney (in press) developed decision analytic structure for the whole process of siting energy facilities. Von Winterfeldt (1978) constructed a generic structure for regulatory decision making. The third structuring phase coincides with the more traditio nal and limited notion of structuring. In this step the parts of the overall analytic structure are formalized in detail by refining the problem elements and relations identified in the first step. This includes a detailed construction of decision trees, event trees, and goal trees. Linkages between part structures are established, e. g. between simulation and evaluation structures. Decision makers and groups affected by possible decisions are specified together with events or actions linking [l] Although such structures alternatives to decision analytic in the remainder of this paper. structures should be considered, I will ignore 14 D. von Winterfeldt/Structuring decision problems them. Examples of this structuring step can be found in most decision analytic textbooks. This three step structuring process of identifying the problem, developing an analytic structure, and formalizing its detailed content seldom evolves in strict sequence.Instead, the process is recursive, with repeat ed trials and errors. Often the analyst decides on a specific structure and later finds it either unmanageable for modeling or non-representative of the problem. The recognition that a structure needs refmement often follows the final step of decision analysis, if numerical computations and sensitivity analyses point to places that deserve more detailed analysis. Knowing about the recursive nature of the structuring process, it is good decision analysis practice to spend much effort on structuring and to keep an open mind about possible revisions.The above characterization of the structuring process will be used as a format to review the structuring literature. First, the use of problem taxonomies for the step of problem identification is examined. Methods to select analytic approaches are then reviewed as possible aids for the second structuring step. Finally, some recent advances in formalizing part structures are discussed. * Two conclusions emerged from this review and motivated the subsequent sections of this paper: (1) Although structuring research has much to say about analytic distinctions between decision problems and structures (e. . , whether a problem is multiattributed or not), it has little bearing on substantive problem distinction (e. g. , the difference between a typical regulation problem and a typical investment problem). (2) Structuring research is still limited to a few, usually hierarchical concepts and operations. Emphasis is put on simple, operational and computerized structuring. Little effort is spent on creating more complex combinations of structures that represent real problem classes. As an alternative, the concept of prototypical decision analytic structures is introduced.Such structures have more substance and complexity than the usual decision trees or goal trees. They are developed to meet the substantive characteristics of a specific problem, but are at the same time general enough to apply to similar problems. As an illustra tion, IIASA’s [21 development of a prototypical decision analytic [2] International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 75 structure for environmental standard setting will be described. Finally, several typical classes of decision problems will be examined and some requirements or prototypical structures will be discussed. Taxonomies for problem identification The taxonomies described in the following typically classify decision problems by analytic categories (e. g. , whether a problem is multiattributed or not) and they attempt to slice the universe of problems into mutually exclusive and exhaustive sets. The purpose of such taxonomies is twofold: to facilitate the identification of an unknown element (e. g. , a medical decision problem) with a class of problems (e:g. , diagnostic problem); and to aid the process of matching classes in the problem taxonomy (e. . , diagnostic problems) with an analyti c approach (e. g. , signal detection structures). Thus, by their own aspiration, problem taxonomies should be useful for the early phases of structuring decision problems. MacCrimmon and Taylor (1975) discuss on a rather general level the relationship between decision problems and solution strategies. Decision problems are classified according to whether they are ill-structured or well-structured, depending on the extent to which the decision maker feels familiar with the initial state of the problem, the terminal state, and the transformations equired to reach a desired terminal state. Three main factors contribute to ill-structuredness: uncertainty, complexity, and conflict. For each category MacCrimmon and Taylor discuss a number of solution strategies. These strategies include, for example, reductions of the perceptions of uncertainty, modeling strategies, information acquisition and processing strategies, and methods for restructuring a problem. Taylor (1974) adds to this class ification scheme four basic types of problems: resource specification, goal specification, creative problems, and well structured problems (see fig. 1).Problem types are identified by the decision maker’s familiarity with the three subparts of the problem. Taylor discusses what types of decision strategies are appropriate for each of these problem categories, for example, brainstorming for creative problems and operations research type solutions for well structured problems. Howell and Burnett (1978) recently developed a taxonomy of tasks 16 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring Problem Type Initial State decision problems Terminal State Transformation Type 1, Resource Specification Problems UnfamllIar Type 11, Goal Specification Problems Type III, Creative ProblemsType IV, Well-Structured Problems Varies Varies Unfamihar Varies Vanes Familiar Unfamiliar Familiar Fig. 1. Types of problem structures (Taylor 1974). and types of events with the intention of assessing cognitive options for processing probabilistic information for each taxonomy element. Uncertain events are classified according to three dichotomies: frequentistic – not frequentistic; known data generator – unknown data generator; process external – internal to the observer. Task characteristics are complexity, setting (e. g. , real life us. laboratory), span of events, and response mode characteristics. For each vent/task combination Howell and Burnett discuss how different cognitive processes may be operating when making probability judgments. For example, in estimating frequentistic events with unknown data generators, availability heuristics may be operative. Brown and Ulvila (1977) present the most comprehensive attempt yet to classify decision problems. Their taxonomy includes well over 100 possible characteristics. Decision problems are defined according to their substance and the decision process involved. Substantive taxonomic characteristics are mainly derived from th e analytic properties of the situation, i. . , amount and type of uncertainty, and amount D. von Winterfeldt/Structuring decision problems 71 and types of stakes, types of alternatives. Only a few elements of this part of the taxonomy can be directly related to problem content, i. e. , current vs. contingent decision, operating vs. information act. The taxonomic elements of the decision process refer mainly to the constraints of the decision maker, e. g. , reaction time, available resources. The taxonomy by Brown and Ulvila incorporates most previous problem taxonomies which tried to define decision problems by categories derived from decision analysis.These include taxonomies by von Winterfeldt and Fischer (1975), Miller et al. (1976), and Vlek and Wagenaar (1979). To be useful for problem identification, the above taxonomies should lead an analyst to a class of problems which has characteristics similar to the decision problem under investigation. Unfortunately, the existing probl em taxonomies are ill-suited for this purpose, because they use mainly analytic categories to distinguish problems. Such categories are derivatives of the decision analytic models and concepts, rather than characteristics of real world problems. For example, the analytic categorizations f problems into risky vs. riskless classes is based on the distinction between riskless and risky preference models. Analytic categories create more or less empty classes with little or no correspondence to real problems. For example, none of the above taxonomies allows distinguishing between a typical siting problem and a typical regulation problem in a meaningful way. It appears that substantive rather than analytic characteristics identify real problems. Substantive characteristics are generalized content features of the problems belonging to the respective class. For example, a substantive eature of regulation problems is the involvement of three generic decision makers: the regulator, the regula ted, and the beneficiary of regulation. To become useful for problem identification, taxonomies need to include such substantive problem characteristic& Methods for selecting an overall analytic structure Most taxonomies include some ideas or principles for matching lems with analytic structures or models. MacCrimmon and attempted to match their basic type of decision problems with tive solution strategies, Howell and Burnett speculated on which tive processes may be invoked by typical task/event classes in probTaylor ognicogniproba- 18 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems bility assessment; von Winterfeldt and Fischer identified for each problem category appropriate multiattribute utility models. But in none of these papers explicit matching principles or criteria for the goodness of a match are given. Rather, matches are created on the basis of a priori reasoning about the appropriateness of a strategy, model, or a cognitive process for a particular class of decision problems. Brown and Ulvila (1977) attempted to make this selection process more explicit by creating an analytic taxonomy in correspondence with the problem taxonomy.The analytic taxonomy classifies the main options an analyst may have in structuring and modeling a decision problem. The taxonomy includes factors such as user’s options (amount to be expended on the analysis), input structure (type of uncertainty), elicitation techniques (type of probability elicitation). These categories identify options, both at a general level (optimization, simulation, and Bayesian inference models) and special techniques (e. g. , reference gambles, or Delphi technique). To match problems with analytic approaches Brown and Ulvila created a third taxonomy, called the â€Å"performance measure taxonomy†.This taxonomy evaluates analytic approaches on attributes like â€Å"time and cost measures†, â€Å"quality of the option generation process†, â€Å"quality of communicat ion or implementation†, etc. Different problem classes have different priority profiles on the performance measure categories. Similarly, different analytic approaches have different scoring profiles on the performance measures. The analytic approach chosen should perform well on the priority needs of a particular problem, Brown and Ulvila discuss the ‘goodness of fit’ of several analytic approaches to a number of decision situations in terms of these performance measures.For example, they argue that a contingency type analysis (an element of the analytic taxonomy) is appropriate for decision problems that occur repeatedly and require a fast response (elements of the decision situation taxonomy) because contingency type analysis allows fast calculations (elements of the performance measure taxonomy). Several authors have developed logical selection schemes, which can identify an appropriate analytic approach or model based on selected MacCrimmon (1973), for exampl e, developed a problem features. sequential method for selecting an appropriate approach for multiattrib&e evaluation.The first question to be answered is whether the purpose of the analysis is normative or descriptive. Further questions D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 79 include whether the type of problem has occurred frequently before, if there are multiple decision makers with conflicting preferences, and whether alternatives are available or have to be designed. All questions are of the yes-no type and together create a flow chart for selecting among 19 possible approaches. For example, if the purpose of the analysis is normative, if direct assessments of preferences (e. g. ratings) are valid and reliable, and if the type of problem has frequently occurred before, regression models or ANOVA type approaches would be appropriate. Johnson and Huber (1977) and Kneppreth et al. (1977) discuss a three step procedure for selecting a multiattribute utility assessment approach. In the first step, the characteristics of the multiattribute problem are listed, including discreteness vs. continuity of dimensions, uncertainty vs. no uncertainty, and independence considerations. In the second step the evaluation situation is characterized on the basis of judgments about the task complexity, mount of training required for assessment, face validity required, assessment time, accuracy and flexibility. In the third and final step the profile describing the evaluation problem is compared with a profile characterizing five different generic assessment models or methods. The technique that best matches the situation profile is selected. For example, lottery assessment methods and models would be appropriate if the evaluation problem involves uncertainties, does not require high face validity, and allows for a good amount of training of the assessor. Both the taxonomy riented and the sequential selection methods for matching problems and analysis suffer from c ertain drawbacks. As stated earlier, problem characteristics used in taxonomies typically neglect substantive aspects of the decision problem. Consequently, an analyst may choose an analytic approach based on a match with a spuriously defined problem class. For example, when facing a medical diagnosis problem, an analyst may find that some detailed substantive characteristics of the problem (e. g. , the way doctors process information, the physical format of information, etc. ) suggest a signal detection structure.Yet, as far as I can see, none of the above matching processes would directly lead to such a structure. Advances in formalizing structures Influence diagrams are a recent development in decision analytic structuring (see Miller et al. 1976). Influence diagrams draw a graphical 80 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems picture of the way variables in a decision model influence each other, without superimposing any hierarchical structure. For example, a decision v ariable (price) may ‘influence’ a state variable (demand) and thus ‘influence’ a final state (successful introduction of a new product into market). Influence diagrams have been conceived mainly as an initial pre-structuring tool to create a cognitive map of a decision maker’s or expert’s view of a decision problem. In the present stage influence diagrams are turned into hierarchical structures and analyzed with traditional tools. But research is now underway at SRI International on the use of influence diagrams directly in EV or EU computations. Another generalization of the tree approach is Interpretative Structural Modeling (ISM) developed, for example, in Warfield (1974) and Sage (1977). In interpretative structural modeling, matrix and graph heory notions are used to formally represent a decision problem. First, all elements of the problem are listed and an element by element matrix is constructed. The structure of the relationships betwe en elements is then constructed by filling in the matrix with numerical judgments reflecting the strength of the relationship, or by simply making O-l judgments about the existence/non-existence of a relation. Computer programs can then be used to convert the matrix into a graph or a tree that represents the problem. Influence diagrams, value trees, decision trees, and inference trees can all be thought of as special cases of ISM.For example, in value tree construction, the analyst may begin with a rather arbitrary collection of value relevant aspects, attributes, outcomes, targets and objectives. Using alternative semantic labels for the relationships between these elements (e. g. , ‘similar’, ‘part of’), an element by element matrix can be filled. Finally, the analyst can explore whether a particular relational structure leads to useful goal tree structure. Besides these generalizations of traditional hierarchical structuring tools, several refinements of special structuring techniques have been suggested, particularly for evaluation roblems. Keeney and Raiffa (1976) devoted a whole chapter to the problem of structuring a value tree. They suggest a strategy of constructing a value tree by beginning with general objectives and disaggregating by using a pure explication logic (i. e. , what is meant by this general objective? ). This approach has previously been advocated by Miller (1970) and others. Mannheim and Hall (1967) suggest in addition the possibility of disaggregating general D. van Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 81 objectives according to a means-ends logic (how can this general objective be achieved? ).Other disaggregation logics (problem oriented, process oriented, etc. ) could be analyzed in the ISM context. There are a number of papers that suggest more empirical or synthetic approaches to value tree construction. Of particular interest is a repertory grid technique described by Humphreys and Humphreys (1975) and Humphreys and Wisuda (1979). In this procedure similarity and dissimilarity judgments are used to span the value dimensions of alternatives. Several computer aids have been developed recently to aid decision makers or experts in structuring decision problems. Some of these are discussed in Kelly ( 1978), and Humphreys (1980).These aids typically rely on empty structuring concepts (decison trees, value trees, inference trees, or influence diagrams) and they guide the decision maker/expert in the analytic formulation of his/her problem. Special aids are OPINT for moderately complex problems which can easily be formulated into a decision tree or matrix structure, the decision triangle aid for sequential decision problems with a focus on changing probabilities, and EVAL for multiattribute utility problems (Kelly 1978). In addition to these structuring and assessment aids, there are now computerized aids under development xploiting the idea of influence diagrams and fuzzy set theory . Influence diagrams, ISM, and computer aids are indicative of a trend in structuring research and perhaps in decision analysis as a whole. This trend turns the fundamentally empty structures of decision trees, goal trees, and inference trees into more operational, computerized elicitation tools, without adding problem substance. There are clear advantages to such an approach: a wide range of applicability, flexibility, user involvement, speed, limited training, and feedback, to name only a few. It also reduces the demands on the decision analyst’s time.There is, of course, the other extreme, the prestructured, precanned problem specific version of decision analysis applicable to essentially identical situations. A military example is Decisions and Designs Inc. % SURVAV model (Kelly 1978) which applies to routing decisions for ships to avoid detections by satellites. Such a structure and model can routinely be implemented with almost no additional training. In turn it gives u p generalizability. Neither extreme is totally satisfactory. Empty general structures must consider each problem from scratch. Substantive specific struc- 82 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring ecision problems tures have limited generalizability. The middleground of problem driven but still generalizable structures and models needs to be filled. Problem taxonomies may help here by identifying generic classes of problems. But as was discussed earlier, existing taxonomies are ill equipped for this task since they neglect substantive problem features. The question of filling in the middleground between ‘too general’ structures and ‘too specific’ structures thus becomes a question of searching for generalizable content features of problems that identify generic classes of decisions.These generic classes can then be modelled and structured by â€Å"prototypical decision analytic structures† which are specific enough to match the generalizable problem feature s and general enough to transfer easily to other problems of the same class. At the present stage of research this search process will necessarily be inductive because too little is known about problem substance to develop a problem driven taxonomy and matching analytic structures. An inductive research strategy may attempt to crystallize the generalizable features of a specific application, . or compare a number of similar applications (e. . , with siting problems), or simply use a phenomenological approach to delineate problem classes in a specific application area (e. g. , regulation). In the following two sections some possibilities for developing prototypical decision analytic structures will be discussed. An example of developing a prototypical structure The following example describes the structuring process in the development of a decision aiding system for environmental standard setting and regulation. The work was performed as part of IIASA’s (see fn. 2) standard se tting project (see von Winterfeldt et al. 1978), which had oth descriptive and normative intentions (how do regulators presently set standards? how can analytic models help in the standard setting process? ). Because of this wide approach of the standard setting project, the research group was not forced to produce workable models for specific decision problems quickly. Consequently, its members could afford and were encouraged to spend a substantial amount of time on structuring. Inputs into the structuring process were: – retrospective case studies of specific mental protection agencies; standard processes of environ- national Railway Corporation energylevelmeasure 3 measurefor aeroplanenoise 1 Japanese dB’ ‘SO†, AT SOURCE RULES ROUTING USE SCHEMES SCHEMES LAND Fig. 2. Regulatory alternatives for Shinkansen noise pollution. IMPLEMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENT /I ALTERNATIVE OF HOUSE IN HOUSE IN FRONT lMldB(A) WCPNLl MEAS†6iiA~â€Å"> 30 †“ d&i) MEASURED LEO’ EQUIP- TION FICA- SPECI- MENT SPE:D CONTROL RES+RlCT TIMES OPERATION 84 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems – previous models suggested for standard setting; – field studies of two ongoing standard setting processes (oil pollution and noise standards).In addition, the structuring process benefited much from continuing discussions with leading members of environmental agencies in the United Kingdom, Norway, Japan and the United States. Although the structuring effort was geared towards decision analysis, substantial inputs were given by an environmental economist (D. Fischer), an environmental modeller (S. Ikeda), a game theorist (E. Hopfinger), and two physicists (W. Hafele and R. Avenhaus), all members of IIASA’s standard setting research team. The overall question was: how can standard setting problems best be formulated nto a decision analytic format and model such that the model is specific enough to capture the ma in features of a particular standard setting problem and, at the same time, general enough to apply to a variety of such problems? In other words, what is a prototypical decision analytic structure for standard setting? Since the regulator or regulatory agency was presumed to be the main client of such models, the initial structuring focussed on regulatory alternatives and objectives. In one attempt a wide but shallow alternative tree was conceived which included a variety of regulatory ptions ranging from emission standards, land use schemes, to direct interventions. An example for noise pollution standards is presented in fig, 2. Coupled with an appropriate tree of regulatory objectives, a decision analysis could conceivably be performed by evaluating each alternative with a simple MAU procedure. A possible value tree is presented in fig. 3 for the same noise pollution problem. This simple traditional structure was rejected since regulators seldom have to evaluate such a wide rang e of alternatives and because it does not capture the interaction between the regulators and the regulated.Also, regulators are much concerned about monitoring and implementation of standards, an aspect which a simple MAU structure does not address. The second structure was a narrow but deep decision tree, exemplified in fig. 4 for an oil pollution problem. In addition to the regulator’s alternatives, this tree includes responses of the industry to standards, possible detection of standards violations, and subsequent sanctions. This structure was geared at fine tuning the regulators’ definitions of D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 85 of hospitals, schools, retwement homes MINIMIZE f residential life DISTURBANCE other / EEggF M,NIM,zE HEALTH Hearing EFFECTS < PsychologIcal Synergetic (aggravation of existing illness) Investment for pollution equipment MINIMIZE COST ~—–< Operation of pollution eqwpment RAILWAY CORP. OBJECTIVES Speed MAXIMIZ E SERVICE -< Aeliablllty ClXlllOrt wth mtemational regulation CONSISTENCY OF REGULATION with other national â€Å"cise standards (car, mr. other trams) POLITICAL OBJECTIVES -/ Enwonmental policy AGREEMENT POLICY WITH GOVERNMENT Transportation policy t Ewnomtc growih policy Fig. 3. Regulatory objectives for noise pollution control. he standard level (maximum emission, etc. ) and monitoring and sanction schemes, and to assessing environmental impacts. The structure is specific in terms of the regulatory alternatives. But by considering industry responses as random events, and by leaving out responses of environmental groups, it fails to address a major concern of regulatory decision making. The third structure was a three decision maker model, in which the regulator, the industry/developer and the environmentalists/impactees are represented by separate decision analytic models (see von Winterfeldt 1978).A signal detection type model links the regulator’s decision through poss ible detections of violations and sanction schemes to the the industry model. An event tree of pollution generating events and effects links the developer’s decisions to the impactee model (see fig. 5). The model can be run as follows: the regulator’s alternatives are left 86 EPA average UK aver,, UK maximum Norway average DEFINITIONS OF OIL EMISSION STANDARDS parts per million ofoil No pollution – Grawty Separator c&ugated Plate Inter- equipment Gas Flotation Filters ceptrr n ob STANDARD LEVEL in watt r ofoil POLLUTION EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE o00 patis per milhon in water n First vidabon of No udat#on of standard occurs at tulle DETECTION STATES standard dunng all opemons n t POLLUTION EQUIPMENT DECISION BY THE OIL INDUSTRY PENALTY No pdlution equipment Gravity separator Gas Flotatux corrugated Plate bltw- Pais Filters EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE per million n Second wdation POLLUTION EQUIPMENT DECISION BY THE OIL INDUSTRY No more vidations DETECTION STATES Find eflect s~ on environment (pdlution levels) FINAL EFFECTS – industry (cost) – regulatlx (political) Fig. 4. Segment of a decision tree for setting oil pollution standards. A standard is usually defined by the number of samples to be taken, how many samples form an average, and how many exemptions from a violation are allowed. For example, the EPA average definition is as follows: four samples are to be taken daily, the average of the four samples may not exceed the standard level (e. g. , 50 ppm) more than twice during any consecutive 30 day period. 87 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems REGULATORY 1 DECISION MODEL I U R (0 1 DETECTION OF REGULATION VIOLATION DEVELOPER – SANCTIONS POLLUTION GENERATING EVENTS I IMPACTEE DECISION MODELPOLLUTION EFFECTS Fig. 5. Schematic representation of the regulator-developer-impactee model. 1: variable standard of the regulator d(r): expected utility maximizing treatment decision of the developer a[d(r)]: expected utility maximizing decision of the impactees variable. The developer’s response is optimized in terms of minimizing expected investment, operation, and detection costs or maximizing equivalent expected utilities. Finally, the impactees are assumed to maximize their expected utility conditional on the regulator’s and the developer’s decision. At this point the model stops.The structure only provides for a Pareto optimality analysis of the three expected utilities accruing to the generic decision units. This model allows some detailed analyses of the probabilities and value aspects of the standard setting problem, and it proved feasible in a pilot application to chronic oil discharge standards (see von Winterfeldt et al. 1978). Regulators who were presented with this model, con- 88 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems REGULATOR’S CHOICE Fig. 6. Game theoretic structure of the regulation I problem. sidered it meaningful, and it offered several insights into the standard setting problematique.Yet, there was a feeling among analysts and regulators that the static character of the model and the lack of feedback loops required improvement. The final structure considered was a game theoretic extension of the three decision maker model. The structure of the game theoretic model is presented in fig. 6. In this model the standard setting process in explicitly assumed to be dynamic, and all feedbacks are considered. In addition, transitions from one stage to another are probabilistic. The model was applied in a seven stage version in a pilot study of noise standard setting for rapid trains (Hapfinger and von Winterfeldt 1978).The game theoretic model overcomes the criticisms of the static decision analytic model, but in turn it gives up the possibility for fine tuning and detailed modeling of trade-offs and probabilities. Considering such aspects in detail would have made the running of the model impossible. Therefore, relatively arbitrar y (linear) utility functions and simple structures of transition probabilities have to be assumed. Although the appropriateness of the different structures was not explicitly addressed in this study, two main criteria come to mind when judging structures: representativeness of the problem and manageability for further analysis.Each of these criteria can be further broken down. For example, representativeness includes judgments about the adequacy of the structural detail, and coverage of important problem aspects. The overall conclusions of many discussion with regulators, analysts, D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 89 industry representatives, and the results of the pilot applications led us to accept the third structure as a prototypical decision analytic structure for relatively routine emission standard setting problems. The model is presently considered for further applications in emission tandard setting and an extension to safety standards will be explored. Tow ards a kit of prototypical decision analytical structures Not every decision analysis can afford to be as broad and time consuming as the previous study. Decision analysis usually has a much more specific orientation towards producing a decision rather than developing a generic structure. Still I think that it would be helpful if analysts were to make an effort in addressing the question of generalizability when modeling a specific problem, and in extracting those features of the problem and the model that are transferable. Such an inductive pproach could be coupled with more research oriented efforts and with examinations of similarities among past applications. Such an approach may eventually fill the middleground between too specific and too general models and structures. But rather than filling this middleground with analytically specific but substantively empty structures and models, it would be filled with prototypical structures and models such as the above regulation model, more refined signal detection models, siting models, etc. In the following, four typical classes of decision problems (siting, contingency planning, budget allocation, and regulation) are examined nd requirements for prototypical structures for these problems are discussed. Facility siting clearly is a typical decision problem. Keeney and other decision analysts have investigated this problem in much detail and in a variety of contexts (see the examples in Keeney and Raiffa 1976). A typical aspect of such siting problems is sequential screening from candidate areas to possible sites, to a preferred set, to final site specific evaluations. Another aspect is the multiobjective nature with emphasis on generic classes of objectives: investment and operating cost, economic benefits, environmental impacts, social impacts, and political onsiderations. Also, the process of organizing, collecting, and evaluating information is similar in many siting decisions. Thus, it should be possible to develop a prototypical structure for facility siting decisions, 90 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems simply by assembling the generalizable features of past applications [ 31. Contingency planning is another recurring and typical problem. Decision and Design Inc. addressed this problem in the military context, but it also applies to planning for actions in the case of disasters such as Liquid Natural Gas plant explosions or blowouts from oil platforms.Substantive aspects that are characteristic of contingency planning are: strong central control of executive organs, numerous decisions have to be made simultaneously, major events can drastically change the focus of the problem, no cost or low cost information comes in rapidly, and organizational problems may impede information flows and actions. Although, at first glance, decision trees seem to be a natural model for contingency planning, a prototypical decision model would require modifying a strictly sequential appr oach to accommodate these aspects.For example, the model should be flexible enough to allow for the ‘unforeseeable’ (rapid capacity to change the model structure), it should have rapid information updating facilities without overstressing the value of information (since most information is free), and it should attend to fine tuning of simultaneous actions and information interlinkages. Budget allocation to competing programs is another typical problem. In many such problems different programs attempt to pursue similar objectives, and program mix and balance has to be considered besides the direct benefits of single programs.Another characteristic of budgeting decisions is the continuous nature of the decision variable and the constraint of the total budget. MAU looks like a natural structure for budget allocation decision since it can handle the program evaluation aspect (see Edwards et al. 1976). But neither the balance issue nor the constrained and continuous characte ristics of the budget are appropriately adressed by MAU. A prototypical decision analytic structure would model an evaluation of the budget apportionment, or the mix of programs funded at particular levels.Such a structure would perhaps exploit dependencies or independencies among programs much like independence assumption for preferences. Regulation covers a class of decision problems with a number of recurrent themes: three generic groups involved (regulators, regulated, [,3] I believe that. Keeney’s forthcoming book on siting energy facilities is a major step in that direction. Of. course, it could also be a step in the opposite direction. Or in no direction at all (see also first asterisked footnote at the beginning of the article). D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems 91 beneficiaries of regulation), importance f monitoring and sanction schemes, usually opposing objectives of the regulated and the benefrciaries of regulation, and typically highly political o bjectives of the regulator. In the previous section, the more specific regulation problem of standard setting was discussed, and a prototypical decision analytic structure was suggested. A decision analytic structure for regulation in general can build on the main features of the standard setting model. This list could be extended to include private investment decisions, product mix selection, resource development, diagnostic problems, etc. But the four examples hopefully re sufficient to demonstrate how prototypical decision analytic structuring can be approached in general. In my opinion, such an approach to structuring could be at least as useful for the implementation of decision analysis as computerization of decision models. Besides the technical advantages of trahsferability, prototypical decision analytic structures would serve to show that decision analysts are truly concerned about problems. Today decision analysis books have chapters such as ‘simple decisions under uncertainty’ and ‘multiattribute evaluation problems’. I am looking forward to chapters such as ‘siting industrial acilities’, ‘pollution control management’, and ‘contingency planning’. References Brown, R. V. and J. W. Ulvila, 1977. Selecting analytic approaches for decision situations. (Revised edition. ) Vol. I: Overview of the methodology. Technical report no. TR77-7-25, Decisions and Designs, Inc. , McLean, VA. Brown, R. V. , A. S. Kahr and C. Peterson, 1974. Decision analysis for the manager. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. Edwards, W. , M. Guttentag and K. Snapper, 1976. A decision-theoretic approach to evaluation research. In: E. L. Streuning and M. Guttentag (eds. ), Handbook of evaluation research, I. 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